Nucleic Acids

 

Nucleic acids: Nucleotides

• A Nitrogenous Base
• A Five-Carbon Sugar
• A Phosphate Group

Polynucleotides

Eukaryotic Cells and Prokaryotic Cells

The Cell-Cell Structure

Cell Structure Comparison

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Structure
	Cell Structure	Prokaryotic Cell	Typical Animal Eukaryotic Cell
	Cell Wall	Yes	No
	Centrioles	No	Yes
	Chromosomes	One long DNA strand	Many
	Cilia or Flagella	Yes, simple	Yes, complex
	Endoplasmic Reticulum	No	Yes (some exceptions)
	Golgi Complex	No	Yes
	Lysosomes	No	Common
	Mitochondria	No	Yes
	Nucleus	No	Yes
	Peroxisomes	No	Common
	Cell Membrane	Yes	Yes
	Ribosomes	Yes	Yes

What are Tissues?

Epithelial Tissue

Classifying

Animal Tissue Types

• Connective Tissue
• Muscle Tissue
• Nervous Tissue
• Nervous Tissue - Glial Cells

Share Your Opinions

• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Golgi Complex
• Ribosomes

What Is Cloning?
Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies of biological matter. This may include genes, cells, tissues or entire organisms. ..........

Types of Cloning
When we speak of cloning, we typically think of organism cloning, but there are actually three different types of cloning.

    * Molecular Cloning

      Molecular cloning focuses on making identical copies of DNA molecules. This type of cloning is also called gene cloning.

    * Organism Cloning

      Organism cloning involves making an identical copy of an entire organism. This type of cloning is also called reproductive cloning.

    * Therapeutic Cloning

      Therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human embryos for the production of stem cells. The embryos are eventually destroyed in this process.

Reproductive Cloning Techniques
Cloning techniques are laboratory processes used to produce offspring that are genetically identical to the donor parent.

Clones of adult animals are created by a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer.
Cloned Animals
Scientists have been successful in cloning a number of different animals.

How do you spell breakthrough? D-O-L-L-Y
Scientists have succeeded in cloning an adult mammal. And Dolly doesn't have a daddy!

First Dolly and Now Millie
Scientists have successfully produced cloned transgenic goats.

Cloning Clones
Researchers have developed a way to create multi-generations of identical mice.

Cloned Animals
View pictures of cloned animals from Guardian Unlimited.
Cloning Problems
What are the risks of cloning? One of the main concerns as it relates to human cloning is that the current processes used in animal cloning are only successful a very small percentage of the time.

Another concern is that the cloned animals that do survive tend to have various health problems and shorter life spans.

Scientist have not yet figured out why these problems occur and there is no reason to think that these same problems wouldn't happen in human cloning.
Cloning and Ethics
Should humans be cloned? A major objection to cloning for research is that cloned embryos are produced and ultimately destroyed. For more information on cloning and ethics ................

.....................///........Anesiva - 2010 Biotech Graveyard
Company: Anesiva
Based: South San Francisco

What Happened: Anesiva's problems began in 2008 when the company elected to stop making transdermal pain patch Zingo due to continuing manufacturing problems. When job cuts and a going-concern notice followed, Anesiva attempted to stay afloat by inking a merger pact with Arcion Therapeutics. But the deal came with some tough provisions, including a requirement that Anesiva raise $20 million from a stock sale and clean up some debts. The South San Francisco-based company announced in late 2009 it couldn't complete a planned merger, and would instead cease operations and file for bankruptcy.


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AutoImmune - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: AutoImmune
Based: Pasadena, CA

What Happened: AutoImmune, which had been working on products to treat autoimmune and other cell-mediated inflammatory conditions, started its downward slide after reporting lackluster results from a Phase III failure of multiple sclerosis drug dirucotide, a treatment it had been developing with BioMS. The developer hired Junewicz & Co. to explore its strategic options. After the review proc


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 ConjuChem - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: ConjuChem
Based: Montreal, Canada

What Happened: ConjuChem was developing a diabetes drug and a long-acting insulin. After experiencing an extended period of financial turmoil, and announced in in January 2010 that the company was looking for buyers. With no offers materializing, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2010. There's no word yet on what will happen to the company's portfolio of drugs.


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Hawaii Biotech - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Hawaii Biotech
Based: Aiea, HI

What Happened: Hawaii Biotech was developing vaccines for dengue fever to West Nile virus. Despite successful trials, the company said earlier this year that it was running out of cash and requested that it's Chapter 11 filing be converted to to a Chapter 11 363(b) asset sale provision. An auction of the company's holdings was scheduled for July, and Merck agreed to purchase the bankrupt biotech's dengue fever vaccine unit for an undisclosed sum. There's no word on what happened the Hawaii's West Nile virus vaccine.


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Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals
Based: Westlake, TX

What Happened: Middlebrook has been in a downward slide for the better part of two years. The developer went through two rounds of layoffs in 2009, and in March announced that it was eliminating its field sales force and significantly reducing its corporate staff to preserve money as it explored its options. As part of the cut-backs, CEO John Thievon resigned. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April and Victory Pharma is purchasing all the company's assets for $17.1 million the following month. Middlebrook's only marketed drug was Moxatag for sore throat, which it was commercializing through DoctorDirectory.com.


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Neuropharm - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Neuropharm
Based: United Kingdom

What Happened: Neuropharm's shares took a beating early last year after the biotech reported that its late-stage trial for an experimental autism therapy flunked its primary endpoint. Though its stock was revived upon rumors that it was getting close to a deal for NPL-2008, the deal never materialized. In April the developer opted for a voluntary liquidation, saying it would have sufficient funds to return money to its shareholders after paying creditors. There are no ongoing trials of NPL-2008.


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Vion Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Vion Pharmaceuticals
Based: New Haven, CT

What Happened: Faced with an FDA demand to mount a new clinical trial for its late-stage cancer therapy, Vion Pharmaceuticals Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December. The developer didn't have enough money to conduct the trial. Vion said its experimental drug assets were for sale and that the company would have to liquidate.


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...................///////////................When the economic crisis reached its peak in 2009, biotech companies were hit hard. We buried 16 developers in our first annual Biotech Graveyard list last year, and while that number has dropped significantly in 2010, there were still eight biotechs that simply couldn't find a buyer or the money necessary to continue their run. Several of these developers struggled for years with solvency problems until finally their luck run out, while others were never able to recover from disappointing clinical trial results.

The good news here is that half as many companies folded as in 2009. Previously biotechs were closing at an alarming pace early last year. But the trend began to slow during the latter months of 2009, and 2010 bankruptcies and liquidations seemed few and far between. It's an encouraging sign that many small developers have weathered the storm.

    * Anesiva - South San Francisco, CA
    * AutoImmune - Pasadena, CA
    * ConjuChem - Montreal, Canada
    * Hawaii Biotech - Aiea, HI
    * Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals - Westlake, TX
    * Neuropharm - United Kingdom
    * Vion Pharmaceuticals - New Haven, CT
    * VitalMedix - Hudson, WI



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In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

    * drug production
    * pharmacogenomics
    * gene therapy
    * genetic testing: techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down syndrome, Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can be used............

Main article: Pharmacogenomics.......................

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:
   1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
   2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
   3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
   4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once................

.........................Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.[citation needed] Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin. Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets....,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,///////////////////

................................Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

    * Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
    * Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
    * Determining sex;
    * Forensic/identity testing;
    * Newborn screening;
    * Prenatal diagnostic screening;
    * Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
    * Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.......$$&^^^^???................

...........The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy.

   1. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics (see reductio ad hitlerum).
   2. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.
   3. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
   4. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease........@%%/////////////////,,.....

Main article: Gene therapy....................

Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

   1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
   2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.

Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease. At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

   1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems such as disruption of an endogenous host gene.

   2. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.

   3. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.

   4. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease..........@@@@@@@////////////

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders..........////////////@@@@@@

Main article: Cloning

Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

   1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
   2. Therapeutic cloning. The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings. This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications......................@@@@@@@///////

Bioremediation and biodegradation
Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB).,///////

A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

    * Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale." Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
    * Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
    * Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
    * Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
    * White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.[citation needed] The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy......////////